Concepts of representation

• Formal representation
  • as a legal agent
• Descriptive representation
  • demographic matching
    • Occupation

  

  • Minorities

• Religion

• Policy representatiuon
  • congruence between laws and public opinion
  • Congress is more apt to be responsive to public opinion than not
    

The dyadic view of representation

• The Miller-Stokes model

• Methods of achieving
  • Involuntary (automatic) representation
  • Voluntary--reward and punishment
• Evidence of policy representation
  • Varies according to policy area
  • Other studies find a lack of constituency effect
  • Involuntary representation seems strongest
  • But little relationship overall
  • Still, voters are pleased with representatives

The collective view of representation

• Congress "as a whole" can be representative
• House-Senate differences in 1970 study